The City Of The Nairobi Airport - 1201 Words

The Dreamliner descended through the inky black night into Nairobi. The darkness was broken by the lights of the city and airfield. Touching down around 9:30 local time, I climbed wearily down the stairs and saw my first sight of Africa, the Nairobi airport. It didn’t look especially impressive and I only wanted to sleep because my body ached in a way that only eight hours in an airplane can do. My family was taken to customs; two hours later, we emerged, glad that we had hurdled our first obstacle. After, finding our driver, we had a 45 minute tour on the way to our tent camp. Seeing Africa at around midnight seemed to reinforce some stereotypes and dispel others. Nairobi looked fairly modernized, I saw billboards for cell phones above†¦show more content†¦In addition, the malls, large houses and other businesses all had security guards. They could be picked out at a distance from their navy blue blazers that they wore. In the proportion to the police, there seemed to be far greater numbers of security guards. Two days later, we drove for six hours into Tanzania. The scenery we passes could have come from any Western. The hills were covered in scrub bush and trees were rare. African cattle herds grazed in the hills. The distance was broken by towns that were few and far between. Along the road lay the businesses. Many of the shops had advertisements on them; here, Coke was easily beating Pepsi. Along with numerous Coke advertisements were ones for local cell phone carriers. Martian red was the predominant colour of the brick businesses and between the shops and road lay a three foot deep, uncovered, slabbed storm ditch that looked like it could eat our safari truck. At the border station, we showed our passports in the hot and dusty room and then resumed our trip. Our guide pointed out Mount Kilimanjaro, partially hidden by low wispy clouds that shrouded the its snow topped peak. 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Comparison of Healthcare Policies between France and the US Free Essays

string(144) " in the US or are earning more than the Medicaid limit are allowed federal subsidy when purchasing state-based health insurances \(CDC, 2011\)\." Introduction This essay aims to critically discuss social policies on healthcare between France and the US. Similarities and differences on the social policies of these two countries will be discussed. The first part of this essay aims to explore how public funding for healthcare services in both countries address health inequalities. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparison of Healthcare Policies between France and the US or any similar topic only for you Order Now A critical discussion on healthcare services available in both countries and the extent to which universal access to healthcare services is practiced shall also be made. The second part presents the challenges that both countries face in addressing healthcare issues. Healthcare policies that address these issues will also be critically appraised. The third part provides an analysis on whether France and USA are ‘converging’ or following ‘path dependence’ on their healthcare policies. A brief conclusion summarising key points raised in this essay will be presented in the end. Healthcare Services and Public Spending for Healthcare The healthcare system in France is described as a mix of private and public insurers and providers (Cases, 2006). This means that almost the whole population is covered by public insurance, which in turn are funded by employers and employees. In addition to public health insurance, a minority also purchases private insurance to complement existing public health insurances. Private providers support outpatient care while public providers provide inpatient care in hospital settings (Cases, 2006). France enjoys relatively good health compared to the US. The Organisation for Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2013) Health Statistics in 2013 reveals that life expectancy in France is high at 82.2 and is currently ranked third amongst OECD countries. In contrast, life expectancy in the US is amongst the lowest at 78.7 (OECD, 2013). The difference in life expectancy in both countries is a cause of concern since the US has one of the most expensive healthcare systems in the OECD and yet fares worse in health outcomes, including life expectancy(Baldock, 2011). The OECD (2013) notes that compared to France and other large OECD countries, the US spends twice as much per individual on healthcare. Interestingly, public health expenditure for health is highest in the US compared to all OECD countries. However, it does not practice universal healthcare coverage with the public supporting only 32% of the total healthcare cost (OECD, 2011). Individuals eligible for Medicaid include the elderly, families with small children and those with disabilities (Rosenbaum, 2011). Approximately 53% of the US population is covered through the Patient Protection and Affordable Act or Obamacare (Rosenbaum, 2011). Under this Act, employers are required to purchase health insurances for their employees. Only a small portion of businesses pays for full coverage with majority requiring their employees to share in the cost of their health insurances (Rosenbaum, 2011). The OECD (2009a) states that 46 million people in the US are left without public or private health insurance. This could place a significant burden to the US healthcare system that is struggling in providing equitable access to healthcare services in the country. The World Health Organization (2014) explains that equitable access is achieved when individuals, regardless of their socioeconomic status, enjoy the same type and quality of healthcare. This is not achieved in the US where statistics (OECD, 2009a) continues to show that high-income groups enjoy better health and appropriately covered by healthcare insurances while those in the lower socioeconomic status continue to have poorer health status. This disparity in health status and healthcare insurance coverage continues to be a challenge in the US. Public spending per capita in the US continues to be the highest in the OECD countries even with the increased participation of the private sector in financing healthcare in the country (OECD, 2013). In recent years, the OECD (2013) observes that public spending across OECD countries continue to decline. On average, healthcare spending of these countries only grew by 0.2% in the last 4 years. While there is a variation on the decrease of public spending, the major reason for the slowdown is due to drastic cuts in health expenditures. In France, the Statutory Health Insurance (SHI) currently covers almost all residents. Until 2000, SHI covered 100% of all residents (Franc and Polton, 2006). Today, almost all of the residents are still covered under SHI. However, a few have purchased private health insurances to complement SHI. Public spending for healthcare is 77.9% while France spends 11.9% of its GDP in healthcare (OECD, 2011). This is in contrast with the US where public spending for healthcare accounts to only 47.7% but spends 17.9% of its GDP on healthcare (OECD, 2011). Interestingly, SHI covers both legal and illegal residents in France. This is opposite in the US where illegal residents are not covered by publicly funded healthcare insurance. There are approximately 21 million immigrants in the US with most having an illegal resident status (Moody, 2011). Health coverage remains to be a concern for this group since they work on jobs that pay very low wages and with no healthcare coverage. Hence, this group is three times more likely to have no healthcare coverage (Stanton, 2006). Currently, this group comprises 20% of the total uninsured population in the US (Moo dy, 2011). The lack of universal coverage in the US suggests that healthcare policies in the US may not be inclusive as opposed to France where almost all residents have private or public health insurance coverage. Rosenbaum (2011) explains that the Patient Protection and Affordable Act or Obamacare is expected to boost healthcare coverage for legal immigrants who are in low paying jobs. However, only legal immigrants who have been in the US for at least five years could qualify for Medicaid or purchase state-based health insurances. Currently, all states in the US have expanded Medicaid coverage to low-income groups. Specifically, a family of four with a combined annual income of $33,000.00 and an individual with $15,800.00 yearly income are now eligible for Medicaid. This legislation provides health coverage to approximately 57% of the uninsured population in the US (CDC, 2011). For legal immigrants who have not reached five years of stay in the US or are earning more than the Medicaid limit are allowed federal subsidy when purchasing state-based health insurances (CDC, 2011). You read "Comparison of Healthcare Policies between France and the US" in category "Essay examples" As opposed to France where illegal immigrants enjoy the same healthcare coverage as legal immigrants and citizens, those in the US on illegal status remain uninsured and could not purchase state-based health insurances (CDC, 2011). Healthcare access for this group is limited to community health centres across the country. It is noteworthy that only 8,500 community health centres are in existence today and yet they cater to at least 22 million people each year (CDC, 2011). Almost half of those who access primary health centres are the uninsured. While hospitals are required by law to provide emergency care for all individuals regardless of their resident status, those who are uninsured do not have health coverage to sustain their long-term healthcare needs (Rosenbaum, 2011). Current healthcare policies in the US might actually promote health inequality since it only provides primary basic healthcare services (CDC, 2011) to the marginalised group, which may include low-income and ethni c groups. In France, The Bismarckian approach to healthcare has been used for several decades but in recent years, there is now an adoption of the Beveridge approach (Chevreul et al., 2010). In the former, health coverage tends to be uniform and concentrated while in the latter, the single public payer model is promoted. In the Bismarckian approach, everyone should be given the same access to healthcare services while the Beveridge model allows for stronger state intervention (Chevreul et al., 2010). This also suggests that tax-based revenues are used to finance healthcare. The mix of both models is necessary to respond to the increasing demands for healthcare in the country and to regulate the increasing cost of healthcare. Chevreul et al. (2010) emphasise that the SHI is now experiencing deficit due to increasing rise of healthcare expenditure in the country. The French parliament, through the Ministry of Health regulates expenditure by enacting laws and regulations. Importantly, France regulates prices of specific medical procedures and drugs (Chevreul and Durand-Zaleski, 2009). This development is crucial since failure to regulate prices could further drive up healthcare costs. However, regulation of prices of medical devices remains to be poor. In a survey (OECD, 2009b), expenditures for medical devices is high and amounts to ˆ19 billion annually. Although it comprises 55% of the pharmaceutical market, increased demand for medical devices have also increased SHI expenditures on these devices (Cases and Le Fur, 2008). It should be noted that only 60% of the medical devices are covered by SHI (Cases and Le Fur, 2008). Regulation of the prices of these medical devices is not as strong as the market for drugs and other major medical equipment. This implies that increasing healthcare costs of medical devices could have an impact on publ ic health spending policies in France. Healthcare Issues and Challenges One of the major issues in both countries is the rising healthcare expenditure. As noted by the OECD (2013), there is a disparity between healthcare expenditure and rising healthcare costs in OECD countries. The average increase in healthcare expenditure only amounts to 0.2% and yet healthcare cost continues to rise. In France, this disparity has promoted the Ministry of Health to increase private insurance of its members to help cover healthcare services not normally covered by the SHI. In the US, the debate on Obamacare and the reluctance of the government to cover illegal residents continue to be a challenge in providing equitable healthcare Meanwhile, high costs of medicines could have an impact on healthcare, especially amongst those who are covered by Medicaid and those who could barely afford state-subsidised healthcare insurances (Moody, 2011). This is in contrast to France where cost containment is in place for medicines. To illustrate the lack of healthcare costs regulations, the US spends more on developing medical technologies, which only benefits a few of the patients. The country is also burdened with high administration and pharmaceutical costs. Doctors in the country are also amongst the highest paid in the OECD countries (Greve, 2013). Moody (2011) argues that cost containment remains to be a problem since lowering down prices of medicines or healthcare costs for beneficiaries of Medicaid would lead to doctors’ reluctance to treat Medicaid patients. The lack of priorities in healthcare spending in the US has resulted in higher spending on certain areas and low spending on others. However, this does not translate to better health outcomes for the whole population. Elderly care is one area where there is high spending but the amount of spending does not necessarily translate to better health outcomes. As noted by Haplin et al. (2010), the elderly are more vulnerable to chronic healthcare conditions, such as dementia, cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes. Hence, healthcare costs for this group are relatively higher compared to other members in a community. In a report published by Stanton (2006), approximately 40% of US healthcare expenditure is devoted to elderly care, but this group only comprises 13% of country’s population. It is projected that in the succeeding years, healthcare cost for this group will continue to rise with the ageing of the US population (Stanton, 2006). The same issue is also seen in France, where increasing healthcare cost for the elderly is also expected in the succeeding years (Franc and Polton, 2006). Both countries also lack coordination of care and gatekeeping for the elderly. Although there is an emphasis on elderly care in both countries, lack of continuity of care often leads to poor quality care, duplication of healthcare, waste and over-prescription (Franc and Polton, 2006; Evans and Docteur and Oxley, 2003; Stoddard, 2003). In France, this issue was first addressed through the creation of provider networks and increasing the gate-keeping roles of the general practitioners (GPs). However, the latter was largely unsuccessfully and finally abolished with the introduction of the 2004 Health Insurance Act (Franc and Polton, 2006). In this new legislation, patients have the freedom to choose their own healthcare providers or primary point of contact. Most of the primary points of contact are GPs. This scheme is successful in F rance due to incentives offered to the patients and GPs. This scheme has been suggested to improve the quality of care received by the patients since there is more coordination of care between GPs and specialists (Naiditch and Dourgnon, 2009). This scheme also drives up the cost of visits to specialists and could have influence healthcare financing policies (De Looper and La Fortune, 2009; Naiditch and Dourgnon, 2009). Another issue common to both countries is the competition between hospitals for patients who can afford private healthcare. Consumer demands for healthcare in the US have increased. Hospitals respond by increasing their services to separate them from their competitors (Moody, 2011). For instance, by-products of this competition results to increasing the size of the patient rooms and providing in-house services such as full kitchens, family lounges and business service. All these have not been related to improved health outcomes of the patients. In France, the differences in healthcare costs between publicly funded hospitals and private for-profit hospitals spark a debate on whether common tariffs are the solution to cost containment (Chevreul et al., 2010). Despite the implementation of common tariffs, there is still a growing difference on the healthcare costs between the private and public sectors. Currently, the reform plan Hospital 2007 (Chevreul et al., 2010) states that the obj ective of introducing a common tariff for public and private hospitals has been withheld until 2018. This shows that healthcare policies respond to current trends in health provision in France. ‘Convergence’ and ‘Path Dependence’ Starke et al. (2008) explain that history and institutional context all play a role in influencing healthcare policies in a welfare state. Healthcare policies that tend to be resistant to change illustrate institutionalist or ‘path dependence.’In the event where changes are needed, those that follow ‘path dependence’ change their policies but do so within the boundaries set in the original healthcare policies. On the other hand, healthcare policies that follow the ‘convergence’ pathway or functionalist perspective tend to integrate best practices and are more responsive to social, political and economic changes. Healthcare policies in France and the US tend to follow the ‘convergence’ pathway. The historical context of France reveals that a unitary presidential democracy was established in 1958 (Cases, 2006). In this system, the central government retains sovereignty and policies implemented in local or regional levels are approved by the central government. Despite the practice of central dirigisme, many regions in France have practiced coordination and decenstralisation. Political parties elected to the French government all have a common goal in financing the healthcare system in France. It practices cost-containment by regulating healthcare costs, reducing healthcare demands and restricting healthcare coverage (Chevreul and Durand-Zaleski, 2009). All these cost-containment policies have generally been met with public discontent. In recent years, the introduction of Supplementary Health Insurance enabled the French government to still deliver quality care at reasonable cost. Further, the introduction of direct payment, although reimbursable, also discourages wasteful consumption of healthcare (Chevreul and Durand-Zaleski, 2009). Although changes in healthcare policies tend to be restrictive more than three decades ago, France is now taking the ‘convergence’ pathway in its healthcare system. This suggests that healthcare policies are more responsive to social and economic changes. France also regards its people as equal but retain their freedom to choose a healthcare provider and hospital. The manner of healthcare financing in France allows service users to choose from competing healthcare professionals. Service users could also access specialists due to little gatekeeping in the country (Naiditch and Dourgnon, 2009). All these changes in the France’s healthcare system reflect ‘convergence’ rather than ‘path dependence’. Convergence in healthcare is also shown in both countries through its policies on increasing personal contributions of service users for healthcare (Mossialos and Thomson, 2004). There is also an increasing reliance on private health insurers to bridge the gap in public healthcare delivery. The increasing public-private mix exemplifies convergence. There is also a trend towards community healthcare and decentralisation of healthcare (Baldock, 2011; Chevreul et al., 2010; Blank and Burau, 2007). This trend relies on community healthcare practitioners to provide care in home or community settings. This has been practiced in other developed countries where patients with chronic conditions receive care in their own homes (Chevreau et al., 2010). This approach is also applied when caring for the elderly. Similar to other Welfare states, the US and France are experiencing population ageing. The proportion of the elderly in both countries is expected to rise in the succeeding years (Chevrea u et al., 2010). As mentioned earlier, this translates to increases in health expenditures and cost for this group. Marked increases in health expenditures for this group would mean further reduction on public spending or cost containment. All these could have an impact on public spending in the future and might increase insurance premiums of individuals. There is also the possibility of raising SHI contributions in France or reducing healthcare coverage of Medicaid in the US. Both strategies could fuel public discontent, increase the gap between the rich and the poor and promote health inequalities (OECD, 2008; Starke et al., 2008; Stanton, 2006). Since the main aim of the policies in both countries is to achieve optimal health for all, the realisation of this aim might be compromised with an ageing society. It is also noteworthy that since public funds are bankrolled by taxes, increasing number of elderly could mean reduction in number of employees who are economically productive. This could also lead to lower tax collections and decreased public funding for healthcare. As shown in both countries, healthcare policies are becoming more responsive to the social and economic changes. This does not only suggest a direction towards ‘convergence’ but suggests that this pathway could be the norm for many OECD countries. Conclusion Healthcare policies in the US and France have been influenced by social and economic changes in recent years. Although both aim to achieve universal coverage, it is only France that has achieved this with almost 100% of its citizens covered with healthcare insurance. The US is struggling to meet the healthcare needs of its citizens with almost 46 million still uninsured. Its Obamacare is still met with criticism for its failure to provide public healthcare coverage for most of its citizens. Only the poor and those unable to afford basic healthcare services are covered under Medicaid. In Obamacare, those with marginal incomes could purchase federal-subsidised healthcare insurances. Both countries are also faced with the challenge of an ageing society. The inequitable allocation of healthcare services to this group also promotes social discontent. Almost half of public expenditure is channeled to the elderly, which only comprises 13% of the whole population. The heightened demand for e lderly care, lowered public expenditure on healthcare and increasing healthcare costs have all influenced healthcare policies in the US and France. Finally, the recent changes in the healthcare policies of this country suggest convergence rather than path dependence suggesting that healthcare policies continue to be influenced by social and economic changes in both countries. It is recommended that future research should be done on how ‘convergence’ helps both countries respond to increasing complexities of healthcare in both countries. References: Baldock, J. (2011). Social policy, social welfare and the welfare state. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Blank, R. Burau, V. (2007). Comparative health policy. London: Palgrave. Cases, C. (2006). ‘French health system reform: recent implementation and future challenge’. Eurohealth, 12, pp. 10-11. Cases, C. Le Fur, P. (2008). ‘The pharmaceutical file’, Health Policy Monitort, May [Online]. Available from: http://www.hpm.org/survey/fr/all/2 (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). NCHS Data Brief: Community Health Centers: Providers, Patients and Content of Care [Online]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db65.htm (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Chevreul, K., Durand-Zaleski, I., Bahrami, S., Hernandez-Quevedo Mladovsky, P. (2010). France: Health System Review 2010. France: The European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, WHO Regional Office for Europe, World Bank, European Commission, UNCAM, London School of Economics and Politic Science, and the London School of Hygiene Tropical Medicine. Chevreul, K. Durand-Zaleski, I. (2009). ‘The role of HTA in coverage and pricing in France: toward a new paradigm?’. Euro Observer, 11, pp. 5-6. De Looper, M. La Fortune, G. (2009). Measuring disparities in health status and in access and use of healthcare in OECD countries. Paris: OECD (Health working paper 43) [Online]. Available from: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issuesmigration-health/measuring-disparities-in-health-status-and-in-access-and-use-of-healthcare-in-oecd-countries_225748084267 (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Docteur, E. Oxley, H. (2003). Health-care systems: lessons from the reform experience. Paris: OECD (Health working paper 9) [Online]. Available from: http://www.irdes.fr/Publications/Qes/Qez133.pdf (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Evans, R. Stoddard, G. (2003). ‘Consuming research, producing policy?’, American Journal of Public Health, 93, pp. 371-379. Franc, C. Polton, D. (2006). ‘New governance arrangements for French health insurance’. Eurohealth, 12, pp. 27-29. Glyn, A. (2006). Capitalism unleashed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Greve, B. (2013). Routledge Handbook of the Welfare State. London: Routledge. Halpin, H., Morales-Suarez-Varela, M. Martin-Moreno, J. (2010). ‘Chronic disease prevention and the new public health’. Public Health Review, 32, pp. 120-154. Moody, K. (2011). Capitalist care: Will the coalition government’s ‘reforms’ move the NHS further toward a US-style healthcare market?’. Capital and Class, 35(3), pp. 415-434. Mossialos, E. Thomson, S. (2004). Voluntary health insurance in the European Union. Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe on behalf of the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies [Online]. Available from: http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/98448/E84885.pdf (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). Naiditch, M. Dourgnon, P. (2009). The preferred doctor scheme: a political reading of a French experiment of gate-keeping. Paris: IRDES. OECD (2013). Health at a glance 2013: OECD Indicators, Europe: OECD Publishing [Online]. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/health_glance-2013-3n (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). OECD (2011). Human Development Index and its components. Europe: OECD. OECD (2009a). Society at a Glance 2009: OECD Social Indicators. Europe: OECD. OECD (2009b). Health data 2009. Paris: OECD. OECD (2008). Are we growing unequal[Online]. Available at: www.oecd.org (Accessed: 17th April, 2014). Rosenbaum, S. (2011). ‘The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: Implications for Public Health Policy and Practice’. Public Health Reports, 128(1), pp. 130-135. Stanton, M. (2006). The high concentration of U.S. healthcare expenditures: research in action, issues 19. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Starke, P., Obginer, H. Castles, F. (2008). ‘Convergence towards where: in what ways, if any, are welfare states becoming more similar?’. Journal of European Public Policy, 15(7), pp. 975-1000. World Health Organization (WHO) (2014). Health Systems: Equity [Online]. Available at: http://www.who.int/healthsystems/topics/equity/en/ (Accessed: 27th April, 2014). How to cite Comparison of Healthcare Policies between France and the US, Essay examples

The Role Of Professional Development For Educators Essay Example For Students

The Role Of Professional Development For Educators Essay Professional development for educators is an important step in learning new ways to educate, implement new practices and administering the best possible outcomes for children s wellbeing. Depending on the child’s circumstances it is also important to search for other means of opinion. In this case accommodating the child’s family and the community in which he or she lives in and advancing towards promoting worthwhile relationships. Relationship building encourages parents in working collaboratively with professionals to create environments of support and enthusiasm around the best interests of the child. As stated in the National Quality Standards (2013), â€Å"the expertise of families is recognised and they share in decision making about their child’s learning and wellbeing† (p. 152). Questions that might help with finding appropriate support for children s learning are for example, what are the best interests of the child when at home? What are the things he/she is good at? When you are out, what do they enjoy the most? Asking questions like this provides insight into the Microsystem and Mesosystem the most influential parts of a child s life. Getting to know the child s likes and dislikes are important in finding ways to implement supportive surroundings. Finding the dominant components of a child s life provides foundation for using the Strengths-based Approach and finding principles of the child’s strengths and abilities, seeing a holistic view of the child, building on the child s abilities in reach of their zone of proximal development. When educators interact with children they become aware of their skills, which establishes â€Å"sustained shared thinking† (DEECD, 2012, p. 10), being able to work together and prompt the . . thinking and strategising to implement transformative ways of coping with challenges. It is technique based upon vision, pedagogy and philosophy. Whereas Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model contains the roles, patterns, rules and beliefs that affect the development of an individual. It’s sole purpose of identifying who we are as a person, the actions we take and our influences that has an impact on an individual’s future. There are some deficits in using the approach model as it can only apply for working towards already learnt abilities and a way to avoid the truth. By all means it is a great approach but there needs to be a commitment from a community of learners who work together to â€Å"become more resourceful in dealing with crises, weathering persistent stresses, and meeting future challenges as opposed to developing dependence on the system† (Hammond, 2010p. 4).

To Comprehend The Unfaltering Love Of Victor Frankl, We Must Essays

To comprehend the unfaltering love of Victor Frankl, we must understand his circumstances. There is no way we can step into his shoes to experience his tragedies, but his vivid descriptions help us vicariously relive his tribulation. He opens a window into his world, and we can actually see the scenes he paints for us. ?The accompanying guards kept shouting at us and driving us with the butts of their rifles,? he says (348). It is difficult to put ourselves in his position of despair. Being forced to do things, in abominable conditions, against our will when our lives depend on it is not something we, as modern Americans, know much about. It may be more difficult to understand how he keeps his hope alive. Frankl clings to the one thing even the Nazis could not take away from him. The love for his wife was a bond even death could not erase. ?There was no need for me to know; nothing could touch the strength of my love, my thoughts, and the image of my beloved,? Frankl writes (349). I think it is wonderful how he can recall his wife's face amidst the chaos around him. He exhibits great discipline in a place of desolation. He has an optimistic approach to the hardships of the day. When the others are moping about, he still thinks about her. In addition, his thoughts take him away from any physical pain he may be experiencing. Even though he is lovelorn, he has the ability to drift to another world though his love (349). What words can describe a love like Frankl's? John Alan Lee writes a typology on different kinds of love. Looking at a few types, we can see qualities that characterize Frankl's love. A touch of eros is apparent, because Frankl can remember what his wife looks like. He describes her smile and look. ?Her look was then more luminous than the sun which was beginning to rise? (Frankl 348). Maybe when they first saw each other, there was a physical attraction. It was probably not an infatuation with looks, because he imagines a conversation with her. They had a very strong relationship, so it is dissimilar to eros in that respect. Furthermore, it would definitely not have ludic qualities that are more fleeting (Lee 302-303). Storge love would most likely be the closet type to their love. Lee describes falling into storgic love, ?with the passage of time and the enjoyment of shared activities? (305). He also mentions how some people based their love on friendship and companionship. I believe this is the love Frankl and his wife felt when they were together. ?A man who has nothing left in this world still may know bliss, be it only for a brief moment, in the contemplation of his beloved? (Frankl 348-349). Even when they were separated from each other, it was a sweet love that Frankl had to get him through that incorrigible time. Also characterized by storgic love, is the incredible strength of the bond. Even when the lovers are apart from each other, it does not stress the relationship as much as other types. Lee gives us the example of Ulysses and Penelope (305). Even though Ulysses had not seen his wife in ten years and had been told she was dead, he still used all his strength to get back home. I am of the opinion that Frankl's love for his wife was this strong. It did not matter whether his wife was dead or not. ?Had I known then that my wife was dead, I think that I would still have given myself, undisturbed by that knowledge, to the contemplation of her image...? (Frankl 349). The love was truly admirable that they had for each other. At the same time, I do not think their love was a mania. He did not experience despair from her absence; instead, it gave him hope. However, if we throw in a bit of agape love, I think this well describes different aspects of Frankl's great love for his wife. Lee defines agape as, ?a generous, unselfish, giving of oneself? (309). The affection Frankl and his wife had for each other was probably like this. I can imagine him doing little things around the house for her that showed how much he cared. It was certainly a love they shared equally. Finally, it would seem to me Frankl's noble love was scarce. Working in the cold ditches everyday must have psychologically then physically killed many men. Those who

Biography of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria

Biography of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria Franz Ferdinand (December 18, 1863–June 28, 1914) was a member of the royal Habsburg dynasty, which ruled the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After his father died in 1896, Ferdinand became next in line for the throne. His assassination in 1914 at the hands of a Bosnian revolutionary led to the outbreak of World War I. Fast Facts: Franz Ferdinand Known For: Ferdinand was the heir apparent to the Austro-Hungarian throne; his assassination led to the outbreak of World War I.Also Known As: Franz Ferdinand Carl Ludwig Joseph MariaBorn: December 18, 1863 in Graz, Austrian EmpireParents: Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria and  Princess Maria Annunciata of Bourbon-Two SiciliesDied: June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo, Austria-HungarySpouse: Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg (m. 1900–1914)Children: Princess Sophie of Hohenberg; Maximilian, Duke of Hohenberg; Prince Ernst of Hohenberg Early Life Franz Ferdinand was born Franz Ferdinand Karl Ludwig Joseph on December 18, 1863, in Graz, Austria. He was the eldest son of Archduke Carl Ludwig and the nephew of Emperor Franz Josef. He was educated by private tutors throughout his youth. Military Career Ferdinand was destined to join the Austro-Hungarian army and quickly rose through the ranks. He was promoted five times until he was made a major general in 1896. He had served in both Prague and Hungary. It was no surprise when later, as heir to the throne, he was appointed to be the inspector general of the Austro-Hungarian army. It was while serving in this capacity that he would eventually be assassinated. As a leader of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ferdinand worked to preserve the power of the Habsburg dynasty. The empire was made up of multiple ethnic groups, and for some of them, Ferdinand supported greater freedom for self-determination. He argued for better treatment of Serbia in particular, fearing that suffering among the Slavs might lead to conflict in the region. At the same time, Ferdinand opposed outright nationalist movements that might threaten to undermine the empire. On political matters, it was reported that Ferdinand frequently disagreed with Emperor Franz Joseph; the two had bitter arguments when they discussed the future of the empire. Heir to the Throne In 1889, the son of Emperor Franz Josef, Crown Prince Rudolf, committed suicide. Franz Ferdinands father Karl Ludwig became next in line to the throne. Upon Karl Ludwigs death in 1896, Franz Ferdinand became the heir apparent to the throne. As a result, he took on new responsibilities and was trained to eventually become the emperor. Marriage and Family Ferdinand first met Countess Sophie Maria Josephine Albina Chotek von Chotkova und Wognin in 1894 and soon fell in love with her. However, she was not considered a suitable spouse since she was not a member of the House of Habsburg. It took a few years and the intervention of other heads of state before Emperor Franz Josef would agree to the marriage in 1899. Their marriage was only allowed on the condition that Sophie would agree to not allow any of her husbands titles, privileges, or inherited property to pass to either her or her children. This is known as a morganatic marriage. Together, the couple had three children: Princess Sophie of Hohenberg; Maximilian, Duke of Hohenberg; and Prince Ernst of Hohenberg. In 1909, Sophie was given the title Duchess of Hohenberg, though her royal privileges were still limited. Trip to Sarajevo In 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was invited to Sarajevo to inspect the troops by General Oskar Potiorek, the governor of Bosnia-Herzegovina, one of the Austrian provinces. Part of the appeal of the trip was that his wife, Sophie, would be not only welcomed but also allowed to ride in the same car with him. This was otherwise not allowed due to the rules of their marriage. The couple arrived in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914.​ Unbeknownst to Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, a Serbian revolutionary group called the Black Hand had planned to assassinate the archduke on his trip to Sarajevo. At 10:10 a.m. on June 28, 1914, on the way from the train station to City Hall, a grenade was launched at them by a member of the Black Hand. However, the driver saw something racing through the air and sped up, causing the grenade to hit the car behind them, seriously wounding two occupants. Assassination After meeting with Potiorek at City Hall, Franz Ferdinand and Sophie decided to visit those wounded from the grenade in the hospital. However, their driver made a wrong turn and drove right past a Black Hand conspirator named Gavrilo Princip. When the driver slowly backed up out of the street, Princip pulled a gun and fired several shots into the car, hitting Sophie in the stomach and Franz Ferdinand in the neck. They both died before they could be taken to the hospital. Ferdinand was buried alongside his wife in Artstetten Castle, a royal property in Austria. The car in which they were killed is on display at the Museum of Military History in Vienna, Austria, along with Ferdinands bloodied uniform. Legacy The Black Hand attacked Franz Ferdinand as a call for independence for Serbians who lived in Bosnia, part of former Yugoslavia. When Austro-Hungary retaliated against Serbia, Russia- which was then allied with Serbia- joined the war against Austria-Hungary. This started a series of conflicts that eventually led to World War I. Germany declared war on Russia, and France was then drawn in against Germany and Austro-Hungary. When Germany attacked France through Belgium, Britain was brought into the war as well. Japan entered the war on Germanys side. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side of the allies. Sources Brook-Shepherd, Gordon.  Archduke of Sarajevo: the Romance and Tragedy of Franz Ferdinand of Austria. Little, Brown, 1984.Clark, Christopher M.  The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914. Harper Perennial, 2014.King, Greg, and Sue Woolmans.  The Assassination of the Archduke: Sarajevo 1914 and the Romance That Changed the World. St. Martins Griffin, 2014.

Private School Application Essay Tips

Private School Application Essay Tips Applying to private school means completing an application, a process with many components. There are short answer questions, forms to fill out, teacher recommendations to collect, standardized tests to take, interviews that need to be scheduled, and an application essay that needs to be written. The essay, for some applicants, can be one of the most stressful parts of the application process. These eight private school application essay tips just might help you produce the best essay youve ever written, which could increase your chances of getting accepted at your dream school.   1. Read the directions. This seems obvious, but hear me out. Reading the directions carefully can help ensure that you accomplish the task at hand. While most directions will be straightforward, you never know if the school is going to ask you to address specific questions on the given topic. Some schools also require that you write more than one essay, and if you just assume you get to pick from the three options when you were actually supposed to write three short essays, well  that is certainly a problem. Pay attention to word counts that might be given, too. 2. Be thoughtful in your writing sample. Leading off from that last sentence of bullet one, pay attention to the requested word count, you need to be thoughtful in how you approach the assignment. Word counts are there for a reason. One, to make sure that you give enough detail to actually say something meaningful. Dont cram in a bunch of unnecessary words just to make it longer.   Consider this essay prompt: Who is someone you admire and why?  If you simply say, I admire my mom because she is great, what does that tell your reader? Nothing useful! Sure, you answered the question, but what thought went into the response? A minimum word count is going to make you actually put some more effort into the details. Make sure that as you write to reach the word count that you arent just putting random words down that dont add to your essay. You need to actually put some effort into writing a good story - yes, youre telling a story in your essay. It should be interesting to read.   Also, remember that writing to a specific word count doesnt mean that you should just stop when you hit the required 250 words either. Few schools will penalize you for going over or under a word count slightly  but dont obliterate the word count. Schools provide these as guidelines to get you to put in some effort to your work, but also prevent you from going overboard. No admission officer wants to read your 30-page memoir as part of your application, no matter how interesting it may be; honestly, they dont have the time. But, they do want a brief story that helps them get to know you as an applicant.   3.   Write about something that matters to you. Most private schools give you an option of essay writing prompts. Dont choose the one that you think you should choose; instead, opt for the writing prompt that most interests you. If youre invested in the topic, passionate about it even, then that will show through in your writing sample. This is your chance to show who you are as a person, share a meaningful experience, memory, dream or hobby, which can set you apart from the other applicants, and thats important.   Admission committee members are going to read hundreds, if not thousands, of essays from prospective students. Put yourself in their shoes. Would you want to read the same type of essay over and over? Or would you hope to find an essay from a student thats a little different and tells a great story? The more interested you are in the topic, the more interesting your final product will be for the admission committee to read.    4. Write Well. This should be obvious, but it must be stated that this essay should be written well, using proper grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. Know the difference between your and youre; its and its; and there, their, and theyre. Dont use slang, acronyms, or text-speak.   5. Write. Edit/Revise. Read it Out Loud. Repeat.   Dont settle on  the first words you put down on paper (or type on your screen). Read your admission essay carefully, review it, think about it.  Is it interesting? Does it flow well? Does it address the writing prompt and answer any questions that were asked? If you need to, make a checklist of things you need to accomplish with your essay and make sure when you review it that youre actually meeting each requirement. To ensure that your essay flows well, a great trick is to read it out loud, even to yourself. If you stumble while reading it out loud or struggle with what youre trying to get across, thats a sign that you need to revise. When you recite the essay, you should easily move from word to word, sentence to sentence, paragraph to paragraph.   6. Get a Second Opinion. Ask a friend, parent or teacher to read your essay and give an opinion. Ask them if it reflects you as a person accurately and if you truly completed the requirements on your checklist. Did you address the writing prompt and answer any questions that were asked?   Also get a second opinion on the writing style and tone. Does it sound like you? The essay is your chance to showcase your own unique writing style, tone of voice, personality, and interests. If you write a stock essay that feels cookie cutter and overly formal in nature, the admission committee isnt going to get a clear idea of who you are as an applicant. Make sure the essay you write is genuine.   7. Make sure the work is truly yours.   Taking the lead from the last bullet, make sure your  essay is genuine. This is extremely important. Teachers, parents, admission consultants, secondary school counselors, and friends can all weigh in on it, but the writing needs to be 100% yours. Advice, editing, and proofreading are all fine, but if someone else is crafting your sentences and thoughts for you, youre misleading the admission committee. Believe it or not, if your application doesnt accurately reflect you as an individual, you can jeopardize your future at the school. If you apply using an essay you didnt write (and makes your writing skills look better than they actually are), the school will eventually find out. How? Because its school, and youre eventually going to have to write an essay for your classes. Your teachers will quickly assess your writing abilities and if they dont line up with what you presented in your application, there will be an issue. The private school youve been accepted to may even dismiss you as a student if youre deemed to be dishonest and not capable of managing the academic expectations.   Basically, applying under false pretenses and passing off someone elses work as yours is a major problem. Using someone elses writing  is not only  misleading but can also be considered plagiarism. Dont google sample admission essays  and copy what someone else has done. Schools take plagiarism seriously, and starting off your application like this  isnt going to help.   8. Proofread. Last but not least, proofread, proofread, proofread. Then have someone else proofread. The last thing you want to do is spend all this time and effort to create an awesome private school application essay and then discover that you misspelled a bunch of words or left out a word somewhere and ruin what could have been an awesome essay with some accidental mistakes. Dont just rely on spellcheck either. The computer recognizes both that and than as properly spelled words, but they certainly arent interchangeable.   Good luck!

International payments and settlements currency transactions Essay

International payments and settlements currency transactions - Essay Example Prestigious companies of the stature of Halliburton, Lucent Technologies and Monsanto face allegations of bribery to gain unnatural advantage in business and billions of dollars involved. A discussion on this issue including an assessment of the impact of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development Convention forms 'Section-2' of this paper. The objective of this section is to understand the law and to suggest a way forward for businesses and governments to control this menace. Utilitarian analysis of bribery serves no purpose at all since there is no ground for choosing an option that allows for bribery. International trade involves the exchange of goods and services ('goods') and international payments. There are several ways to make payment for goods received, each involving certain methods and procedures and the inherent advantages and disadvantages. The choice of mode of payment depends upon the contract negotiated between the exporter and the importer. Within this parameter, each partner to the agreement will tend to look for the most cost-effective and secure way of making the transaction. Open account trading is the simplest where the supplier makes an invoice and the buyer pays. Rarely followed in trade, only between the US, UK, and some European countries, and there is no further reference to this mode in this paper. Documentary Collection Exporters, to obtain payment from customers in another country, use the collection services provided by banks. The International Chamber of Commerce has established a set of, standard and internationally accepted, rules known as the 'Uniform Rules for Collection', (1995 Revision, ICC publication No. 522). The bank may be required to handle financial documents such as the bill of exchange or promissory note and other secondary documents like the Bill of Lading, Invoice, Certificates of Inspection and so on. When both types of documents are to be collected, it is called documentary collection. Clean collection is of only financial documents. The crucial financial document is the 'Bill of Exchange'. It is an agreement to pay a fixed sum by the buyer to the seller on a fixed date. It is an instrument made out in writing and signed by the maker (drawer, the importer) directing another person (drawee, usually a bank) to make payment to a third party (payee, the exporter). Called 'Bill of Exchange' in International law, it is called a 'Draft' in the Uniform Commercial Code. A bill of exchange differs from a promissory note, in that, it is a firm commitment to pay rather than a promise to pay and a third party - the drawee is involved. A bill of exchange may also be subject to meeting certain conditions by the payee. A draft has no value unless the Importer accepts it. However, the payment made immediately (Sight Draft, or Documents against Payment D/P) or at a mutually agreed future date, endorsed on the draft (Time Draft, or Documents against Acceptance D/A, or Usance). The advantages of this mode of payment are: It is relatively safe for exporter offering a measure of protection. The

Public policy analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Public policy analysis - Essay Example These factors can be natural, social or financial determinants. Public policy analysis is a process of policy making that begins with the identification of a problem in the public domain. This is followed by formulation of policy options to address the problem through political establishments. A plan is then developed for the implementation of the policy, and an evaluation is done through various government appointed institutions. This paper examines the stages of policy development model by showing how other factors detract from achieving the optimal policy alternatives. The goal of a public policy analysis is to provide policy makers with viable and informed policy options. It also presents credible expectations of the expected outcomes of the proposed policy options. Formulation of policies by governments is a complicated affair because of the socioeconomic and political influences involved in such matters. This makes the task of predicting the outcome and effectiveness of a polic y complex relative to the intended goals. The dynamism brought about by these factors makes the task of identifying unintended consequences a difficult undertaking. Once a problem in the public sector has been identified, there exists various ways of searching for a viable solution. Under the rational comprehensive model of decision-making, all possible approaches to solving the problem are identified. The costs and benefits of each choice of course of action are assessed and compared with each other, and the option that promises to bear the greatest amount of benefits is selected. The rational comprehensive model assumes total rational decision making when thinking of what policies to enact. Goals are identified and categorized, in accordance to order of priority depending on the socioeconomic and political situation at that time. Alternatives to these goals are also identified, and the projected consequence of each policy option is analyzed (Thissen & Walker, 2013). This model rec ommends the choice of options that maximize utility. This is because, in an ideal world, this would be the best model to help the society. This model of decision-making is best suited for policy formulation that omits political influence. Rational comprehensive approaches are costly in terms of resources that are devoted to gathering the relevant information and time. The costs of undertaking rational comprehensive decision-making, sometimes exceed the benefits of improved decision making. The nature of the procedures involved in this model requires a lot of time, which acts as a limiting factor to its potential capacity. This model has a few inadequacies like its focus on a few policy options, relies on trial and error and is prone to respond to political inputs. Another approach that can be taken when analyzing public policy is the problem-oriented model that focuses on values and influences. It entails identification and analysis of a problem in order to develop an effective resp onse that is strategically related to the ongoing events. It focuses on applying a paradigm shift from reactive to proactive public policy formulation. The problem-oriented model uses empirical data to project outcomes and the effectiveness of policies. Conclusions drawn from the use of this model rely on data collected over time and factoring in the prevailing influences of the time. When a list of choices is made, a projection of each of their goals is made and

There are a number of factors which are responsible for this disaster Essay Example for Free

There are a number of factors which are responsible for this disaster Essay 1. Documents which were obtained in the course of a law suit against Union Carbide for environmental contamination before a New York Federal District Court have revealed that the Carbide that had been exported to the Indian plant was untested unproven technology. 2. The Indian subsidiary plant unlike the Union Carbide plants in the U. S. A. were not equipped to handle or cope with problems of this magnitude nor were the local authorities informed about the dangers of the chemicals that were being manufactured in Bhopal. 3. The scientist’s reports which talked and warned about such a possibility as the accident which occurred were ignored outright and the senior staff never got to view them. 4. The sales were dipping and the staff was reduced due to which the safety checks were less frequent. 5. Slip-band plates which had to be installed in order to prevent the water from the pipes entering the tanks were not installed. 6. The MIC tank refrigeration coolant was being used elsewhere, but if a button was pressed in the control room it would have activated it to use the remaining coolant. This was overlooked by the staff. 7. The gas scrubber was kept on standby, so it could not be used to clean the escaping gases with sodium hydroxide which could bring the concentration down to a safe level. 8. The water curtain also was set to ~ 13m and it did not reach the gas, it was perhaps not designed to contain a leakage of such magnitude.. 9. The audible external alarm had been activated to warn the residents of Bhopal, but this was quickly switched off in order not to cause panic among the residents. So, many kept sleeping little realizing what was happening and those who woke up thought the problem was resolved. 10. The flare towers which were used to burn off gases before escaping into the air were under repairs. 11. Doctors were not updated about the proper treatment methods for MIC gas inhalation. When they inquired they were told to give the patients cough medicines and eye drops. Union Carbide denies all this. Their theory is that one of the employees introduced water into the tank by removing a meter, â€Å" a disgruntled plant employee, apparently bent on spoiling a batch of methyl isocyanate, added water to a storage tank†(Browning). Their argument is that so much water could not have entered the tank by accident. They further accuse that the plant staff falsified the numerous records to distance themselves of the disaster and that the Government of India did not prosecute the employee as it would weaken the allegations against the Union Carbide, but the Union Carbide themselves have not named or identified the employee. Still others, like the many experts in industrial safety, believe that the tragedy was preventable, arguing that it was the due to â€Å". the negligence on the part of the Union Carbide Corporation and its corporate subsidiary Union Carbide of India Ltd. (UCIL), which had the responsibility for taking care of the day-to-day operations of the facility†(Bogard 4). Moreover, the Indian Madhya Pradesh State Government had also not done anything for the safety standards and the Union Carbide also failed to implement its safety rules. This plant had experienced six accidents between 1981 and 1984, three of them involving MIC or phosgene, but since they were small scale ones, only one worker died in 1981, the official inquiries were shelved. Probably the neglect of not getting trained workers at the plant and the laxity in the upkeep of the equipments was responsible for the leakage. Union Carbide agreed to pay US$470 million in an out of court agreement for the damages caused in the tragedy, but little of the money went to the survivors, and the people of Bhopal felt betrayed by both the Union Carbide and their own politicians. Thus on the anniversary of the tragedy they burnt the effigy of Warren Anderson who was the chairman of the Union Carbide at that time as well as the effigies of their own politicians. In July 2004, The Supreme Court of India ordered the government to pay the victims and their families the remaining $330 compensation fund. Union Carbide sold its Indian subsidiary which ran the Bhopal plant to the Eveready Battery manufacturers in 1994. The Union Carbide was purchased by the Dow Chemical Company in 2001 for $10. 3 billion. Dow Chemicals have refused to clean up the toxic waste even as activists have demanded it and are pressurizing the Government of India to demand more money from Dow. According to environmentalists the contamination may lead to slow poisoning and diseases of the liver, kidney and the nervous system. Studies have also thrown light on the fact that cancer and other illness are on the rise in this region after the tragedy. BBC Radio5 reported on 14th November 2004 that the site is still contaminated with thousands of metric tones of toxic chemicals which are held in open containers or loose on the ground. Rainfall causes run off thus polluting local wells and boreholes. Some of the areas are so polluted that anyone entering the area for more than ten minutes are likely to loose consciousness.

Doctors Who Practice Euthanasia Should be Executed :: Euthanasia Physician Assisted Suicide

Doctors the Practice Euthanasia Should be Executed An eighty-seven year old grandmother on a respirator, a newborn child with AIDS, a teacher past her prime, and a father in a coma; all put to death by respectable doctors with the O.K. of their families. But is it really a ggod thing? Euthanasia, or doctor-assisted suicide, has become as common as jumping off of a fifteen story building or taking a gun to one1s own head. Certainly society frowns upon suicide, but yet putting an old lady or a man in a coma to death is being accepted every day. Society knows that suicide is bad, but euthanasia is even worse. The guilt and blame of a lost life is falling on the hands of doctor1s that we are supposed to trust, and even worse, the family members themselves. A doctor is to be known as a healer, not an agent of death. A family is supposed to love and support, not kill and inherit. Every person makes the light of the world brighter. The world needs everyone1s power and contribution. It1s the power and energy of the elderly, and the strength and will of the ill, that give the world life. The light has become very dim with the crime and corruption in today1s world, we can1t afford to throw lives away because some think they1re meaningless. If we continue to accept the merciless killings and suicides of the helpless but powerful, the light will soon burn out. There will be no energy in the world. Euthanasia and doctor-assisted suicide should not be accepted or allowed by the government and people of the United States. Statistics show that seventy-three percent of the U.S. population approved of some form of euthanasia. This is used constantly in debates to pass laws for making euthanasia legal. But the people are deceived by this number. When the poll was taken, the people were asked if they approved of "some form" of euthanasia. There are two forms of euthanasia, active and passive. It is the passive euthanasia that many people are accepting, the less harsh of the two. That's why people generally say they approve of it. If a separate question was asked or the people were informed of the

Locke on Language Essay

John Locke (1632-1704) is a great influential British philosopher, reputed by many as the first of the great English empiricists. He offered a comprehensive philosophy of language as well, which was the first of its kind in modern philosophy. In line with Descartes, he pushed reason to the forefront as a tool of philosophical enquiry and opposed authoritarianism and blind acceptance of dictates of religion or superstitions. Locke’s masterpiece, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, concerns itself with determining the limits of human understanding and the legitimacy of knowledge claims. Specifically, Book III of the work investigates into language and its importance in the process of knowledge and epistemological enquiries. Let me brief the main aspects of his approach to language and the context from which it evolves out. Body of the Essay (Lockean Enquiry into Language) In the four Books of the Essay, Locke considers the sources and nature of human knowledge and as a part of it he takes up a study of language. (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke, 1. 1. 7. , p. 47). Against Descartes, he claimed, that mind has no innate ideas (primary notions or inborn ideas). Human mind is a tabula rasa (clear slate) and experiences write on it. In holding this view he subscribes to the axiom of empiricism that ‘there is nothing in the intellect that was not previously in the senses’. Ideas are but materials, out of which, knowledge is constructed. Neither speculative or innate moral principles, nor ideas, such as God, identity, etc. , are there in the mind of the new-born. ‘Children and the idiots prove it’, Locke says. His theory of substratum and substance, and the distinction he makes between primary and secondary qualities are all someway connected to his theory of language. The distinction between real essences and nominal essences, which he makes, stems from his theories of substance and qualities. It seems Locke holds some version of the representational theory of perception, though some scholars dispute it. Locke is not at all skeptic about substances as did Hume. Since Berkeley, Locke’s theory of the substratum or substance has been attacked as incoherent. Since we have no such experience of such an entity there is no way to derive such an idea from experience, his critics argue. (cf. I. IV. 18. p 95) The real essence of a material thing is its atomic constitution. The atomic constitution is the causal basis of all the observable properties of the thing. If the real essences were known all the observable properties could be deduced from it. These real essences are quite unknown to us according to Locke. Ayer interprets: ‘substance in general’ means whatever it is that supports qualities, while the real essence means ‘the particular atomic constitution lying behind observable qualities. Ayer treats the unknown substratum as the same as real essence. This interpretation eliminates the need to explain particulars without properties. But it is to be accepted that such reductionism lacks textual support from Locke and it conflicts some of Locke’s own positions according to some critics. A theory of meaning (semantic theory) is central to any philosophical account of language Locke also develops one when he claims that our words (general terms) refer to our (abstract) ideas. Abstract ideas and classification are of central importance to Locke’s discussion of language. Words that stand for ideas can be distinguished as ideas of substances, simple modes, mixed modes, relations etc. Not all words are ideas, for example, particles that relate. In his analysis of language, Locke gives more attention to nouns than to verbs (II. 7. 1. p 471). Though Locke’s main semantic theory claimed that â€Å"Words in their primary or immediate signification signify nothing but the ideas in the mind of him that uses them†, it was vehemently criticized as a classic blunder in semantic theory. For J. S. Mill, Locke seems not distinguishing the meaning of the word from its reference. But as Norman Kretzmann rightly points out Locke distinguishes between meaning and reference (Tipton, 1977, pp. 123-140). In Locke’s discussion on substances, he says, physical substances are atoms and things made up of atoms. But we have no experience of the atomic structure of horses and tables. Horses and tables are known through secondary qualities such as color, taste, smell etc and primary qualities such as shape and extension. Hence he held that real essence cannot give meaning of names. Ordinary people are the chief makers of language, he believed. Conclusion Locke brought in a tradition in language theory that influenced James Campbell and I. A. Richards, rhetoricians like Edward P. J. Corbett, Condillac, Saussure and structuralists like Claude Levi-Strauss. Linguistic philosophy (logical positivism, logical atomism and so on) in 20th century had something to respond to Locke if not to receive from him. However, I wouldn’t reckon Locke as a linguist than an empiricist. References Locke, John (1995) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Aemherst, New York: Prometheus Books. Kretzmann, Norman (1977) â€Å"The Main Thesis of Locke’s Semantic Theory†. in Locke on Human Understanding,(ed) I. C. Tipton. pp. 123-140.

Identity the ftre written Essay

Introduction Identity Theft is considered to be major problem which has affected thousands, more than 9 million victims of credit identity theft were reported in 2003, it was estimated that the victims were deprived of more than 52 billion dollars through identity theft; the victims included established businesses and individuals. It has been learnt that ‘sophisticated organized criminals’ (Richard, 2003) were involved in identity theft. Identity theft is considered as an intimate abuse that is mainly responsible for the financial losses of the grieved victims. Identity Theft is ‘appropriation of another’s personal information’ (Whilk, 2003), the purpose of the exercise is to practice fraud, and the victim is impersonated by the culprits in this practice. Identity theft is mainly linked with the leakage of confidential information that is later misused by the culprits to achieve benefit. It has been observed through past cases of Identity theft that most of the culprits have enjoyed access to the victim directly, or the information related to the victim through different dealings. The nature of the dealing is not particular, in some of the cases associates and acquaintances have been involved have been found guilty of Identity Theft. According to studies, Identity theft involves three parties that include the victim, the perpetrator and the creditor. Victim is the person who fells prey of the criminal activities without any knowledge of it; the perpetrator is the individual who impersonates the victim, and executes identity theft, the perpetrator in many of the cases have the access to the information of the victim. The creditor is the personal who is familiar to both the perpetrator and the victim, the creditor support and develop the perpetrator plan. In some of the cases the fourth party is ‘the source of the personal information that is being abused’ (Whilk, 2003). Types of identity theft Pretexting Pretexting is considered to be one of the forms of Identity Theft; in this exercise one culprit impersonates the victim, ‘such that one calls under the pretext being that person’ (Richard, 2003). The exercise is normally performed to secure personal information that includes telephone records, and details of bank accounts. According to studies it has been observed that in many of the cases the4 victims are unable to detect their identity theft through pretexting. Credit Card fraud The evolution of internet has made it easier for the interested customers to avail deals through internet. Credit card facilities launched by several banks have tried to facilitate the customers, and have provided them with an easy opportunity to avail deals through electronic transaction via credit card. Unfortunately the sharing of information has often been leaked, and many of the cases of identity theft have been reported. According to study, ‘running up charges on another’s credit card, or passing checks of another, is a form of identity theft’. Identity theft is this case is practiced through appropriation of ‘the signature, account number, and other aspects of another’s identity’, the purpose of the entire exercise is to secure financial benefits on other expenses through unethical and illegal practice. New account fraud Identity theft has been reported through malpractices related to the opening of new accounts. In such case, the criminal uses the identity of the victim, and then after fulfilling the formalities of credit card companies borrow the money. Criminal identity theft In some of the cases it has been reported that criminals impersonate innocent people after their arrest, and have managed to escape successfully. In such cases, the innocent individual then has criminal record, and in some of the cases arrest warrants have also been issued. It has been researched that it is easier for the criminal to link their personality with the victim, and later manage to escape, however in the police records many such individuals are blacklisted who have reported their ignorance about the incident, and have proved their presence in foreign country at the time of criminal activity. Identity Theft as Abuse In the survey which was conducted in 2004, it was observed that domestic abuse has direct relationship with Identity Theft; it was observed that more than 15 percent reported that ‘they were also victims of domestic harassment and abuse from the perpetrator’. Identity theft is also conducted by the strangers, and in some of the cases organized criminal networks are involved in such practices. The identity theft is solely conducted to achieve economic gains through false identity, there it is expected that an authority with financial stability is likely to be the victim, ‘domestic violence is sometimes accompanied by economic abuse, such as controlling access to wealth or destruction of property’ (John, 2002). Much because it is difficult to trace the culprit involve in the identity theft, the practice is considered to be extremely lucrative for the abuser, where as the malpractice has ‘long lasting and debilitating’ (Robert, 2003) impact on the status, repute and character of the victim. The survey revealed that, ‘identity theft victims spend a median of one hundred hours rectifying the damage, and lose thousands of dollars in lost wages and other expenses’ (John, 2002), more than 50 percent of the victim have complained that they are subjected to repeated interrogations and false implications by the law agencies even after 2 years after the revelation of their identity theft, whereas as some reported that they are subjected to false implications for more than decade. According to the Stalking Resource Center at the National Center for the Victims of Crime, explained that ‘stalking as a course of conduct directed at a specific person when one knows or should know that the course of conduct would cause a reasonable person to fear for his or her safety or the safety of a third person; or suffer other emotional distress’ (Kristin, 2004), therefore stalking can be considered as a derivative of the stalking. The discussed surveillance, pretexting, and credit identity theft are directly related to stalking. Pretexting is not considered as an offence of extreme tribulation for the victim, the pretexter can only secure the right to access the accounts, and telephone record. Therefore the expected threats and damages through pretexter include the cancellation of the victim’s account, electric, gas and credit car accounts. However the cases of identity theft related to credit cards have subjected the victim under serious consequences. The survey report found that, ‘distress caused by credit identity theft is real, the victims report rage and anger; personal financial fears; fears for family financial safety; a sense of powerlessness and of feeling defiled’ (Kristin, 2004). Preventive Measures The measures to be necessarily adopted by the public to avoid any incident of victimization through identity theft include issuance of the credit report periodically. The public should also ensure that their credit limit is not too high, so that even in case of any manipulation the financial loss can be adjusted. The public should avail the scheme for the monitoring of their credit, through which unexpected financial dealings can be tracked. It has been learnt that Fair Credit Reporting Act has provided the public with an opportunity to place a fraud alert on their credit report, through such scheme the creditors have the right to access to verify their credit. References 1. Kristin Loberg. Identity Theft: How to Protect Your Name, Your Credit and Your Vital Information. Silver Lake Publishing. 2004. 2. Robert J. Hammond, Robert J. Hammond, Jr. Identity Theft: How to Protect Your Most Valuable Asset. Career Press. 2003. 3. John R. Vacca. Identity Theft. Career Press. 2002. 4. Whilk, Nathanael. Identity Theft: Preventing Consumer Terrorism: An Attitudinal Approach. Silver Lake Publishing 2003. 5. Richard M. Stana. Identity Theft: Prevalence & Cost Appear to Be Growing. Prentice Hall. 2003.

A Beautiful Gril essays

A Beautiful Gril essays We are living in a society where everything is being criticizes starting from where people live to how they look physically. In the United States there has been about one hundred thousand girls diagnosed with anorexia nervosa and six thousand girls have died from it within a year. In Marge Piercys Barbie Doll, she gives the public of how offensive it can be to a girl when someone criticizes a certain part of her body. Some girls may take meaningless comment said to them in a bad way. May be it could have been a good criticism, but teenage girls are very sensitive at this age. Although the protagonist attempts to confront the external forces (man vs. man and man vs. society), she succeeds to a certain extent but fails to resolve with the internal force of man vs. himself. First conflict the author present in the poem is man vs. man. Many girls going through puberty can take a few months to get the idea that they are growing to become women. Going through it, but do not pay attention, their body changes are noticed until it is recognized by someone else other than friends or family. In the poem, the girl is faced with a comment made by one of her classmate that she had a big nose and fat legs. Even though she had a normal childhood, playing with dolls, role-playing like a mother, and miniature GE stoves. She did not worry about what was going around her. Children can make up their own world where they do not worry about physical changes. In the second stanza, she does not only deals with man vs. man, but also with man vs. society. Some do not realize they can be cruel to others by the way they see a person or even talking to a person. The protagonist has to go fro and apologizing to the people she knows for her good qualities, because she was not accepted. Even though she has these qualities, people do not see her for who she is. They just see the fat nose and thick legs. As actre ...

How Radio Waves Help Us Understand the Universe

How Radio Waves Help Us Understand the Universe Humans perceive the universe using visible light that we can see with our eyes. Yet, theres more to the cosmos than what we see using the visible light that streams from stars, planets, nebulae, and galaxies. These objects and events in the universe also give off other forms of radiation, including radio emissions. Those natural signals fill in an important part of the cosmic of how and why objects in the universe behave as they do. Tech Talk: Radio Waves in Astronomy Radio waves are electromagnetic waves (light), but we cant see them. They have wavelengths between 1 millimeter (one-thousandth of a meter) and 100 kilometers (one kilometer is equal to one thousand meters). In terms of frequency, this is equivalent to 300 Gigahertz (one Gigahertz is equal to one billion Hertz) and 3 kilohertz. A Hertz (abbreviated as Hz) is a commonly used unit of frequency measurement. One Hertz is equal to one cycle of frequency. So, a 1-Hz signal is one cycle per second. Most cosmic objects emit signals at hundreds to billions of cycles per second. People often confuse radio emissions with something that people can hear. Thats largely because we use radios for communication and entertainment. But, humans do not hear radio frequencies from cosmic objects. Our ears can sense frequencies from 20 Hz to 16,000 Hz (16 KHz). Most cosmic objects emit at Megahertz frequencies, which is much higher than the ear hears. This is why radio astronomy (along with x-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared) is often thought to reveal an invisible universe that we can neither see nor hear. Sources of Radio Waves in the Universe Radio waves usually are emitted by energetic objects and activities in the universe. The   Sun is the closest source of radio emissions beyond Earth. Jupiter also emits radio waves, as do events occurring at Saturn. One of the most powerful sources of radio emission outside of the solar system, and beyond the Milky Way  galaxy, comes from active galaxies (AGN). These dynamic objects are powered by supermassive black holes at their cores. Additionally, these black hole engines will create massive jets of material that glow brightly with radio emissions. These can often outshine the entire galaxy in radio frequencies. Pulsars, or rotating neutron stars, are also strong sources of radio waves. These strong, compact objects are created when massive stars die as  supernovae. Theyre  second only to black holes in terms of ultimate density. With powerful magnetic fields and fast rotation rates, these objects emit a broad spectrum of  radiation, and they are particularly bright in radio. Like supermassive black holes, powerful radio jets are created, emanating from the magnetic poles or the spinning neutron star. Many pulsars are referred to as radio pulsars because of their strong radio emission. In fact, data from the  Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope  showed evidence of a new breed of pulsars that appears strongest in gamma-rays instead of the more common radio. The process of their creation remains the same, but their emissions tell us more about the energy involved in each type of object.   Supernova remnants themselves can be particularly strong emitters of radio waves. The Crab Nebula is famous for its radio signals that alerted astronomer Jocelyn Bell to its existence.   Radio Astronomy Radio astronomy is the study of objects and processes in space that emit radio frequencies. Every source detected to date is a naturally occurring one. The emissions are picked up here on Earth by  radio telescopes. These are large instruments, as it is necessary for the detector area to be larger than the detectable wavelengths. Since radio waves can be larger than a meter (sometimes much larger), the scopes are typically in excess of several meters (sometimes 30 feet across or more). Some wavelengths can be as large as a mountain, and so astronomers have built extended arrays of radio telescopes.   The larger the collection area is, compared to the wave size, the better the angular resolution a radio telescope has. (Angular resolution is a measure of how close two small objects can be before they are indistinguishable.) Radio Interferometry Since radio waves can have very long wavelengths, standard radio telescopes need to be very large in order to obtain any sort of precision. But since building stadium size radio telescopes can be cost prohibitive (especially if you want them to have any steering capability at all), another technique is needed to achieve the desired results. Developed in the mid-1940s, radio interferometry aims to achieve the kind of angular resolution that would come from incredibly large dishes without the expense. Astronomers achieve this  by using multiple detectors in parallel with each other. Each one studies the same object at the same time as the others. Working together, these telescopes effectively act like one giant telescope the size of the whole group of detectors together. For example, the Very Large Baseline Array has detectors 8,000 miles apart. Ideally, an array of many radio telescopes at different separation distances would work together to optimize the effective size of the collection area as well improve the resolution of the instrument. With the creation of advanced communication and timing technologies, it has become possible to use telescopes that exist at great distances from each other (from various points around the globe and even in orbit around  the Earth). Known as Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), this technique significantly improves the capabilities of individual radio telescopes and allows researchers to probe some of the most dynamic objects in the  universe. Radios Relationship to Microwave Radiation The radio wave band also overlaps with the microwave band (1 millimeter to 1 meter). In fact, what is commonly called  radio astronomy, is really microwave astronomy, although some radio instruments do detect wavelengths much beyond 1 meter. This is a source of confusion as some publications will list the microwave band and radio bands separately, while others will simply use the term radio to include both the classical radio band and the microwave band. Edited and updated by Carolyn Collins Petersen.

Macro--economic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Macro--economic - Essay Example Conclusion VII. References. What is wrong with America’s labor market? I. Introduction This excerpt is from The Economist magazine. It considers the fall in the American economy with specific concern to the labor market. The Issue in concern discusses the reason behind the fall in labor market, whether the problem lies at the demand side or the supply side along with pros and cons for active job policy. Part (a) – Article Summary The article talks about persistent unemployment rate in America’s market. The models and theories used in this article are: 1. Different types of Unemployment 2. Economics factors of production 3. Economic Growth Model 4. Demand and Supply Theories 5. Keynes Theory of Income and Employment 6. Modern Macroeconomists view 7. Okun’s Law II. Why is the labor market weak? America has faced recession at June 2009 (NBER, 2009). After the recession in recovery USA has seen 2.8% annualized growth, this was of course real low therefore it c annot have assured a significant change in unemployment rate thereafter. This is slightly in accordance with the Okun’s Law, which says, â€Å"that for every 1% rise in the unemployment percentage there is approximate 2% fall in the potential Gross Domestic Product.† Though the exact accuracy of the law is yet under disputation, however it stills empirically recognizes the relationship between unemployment and country’s production. With only 2.8% real growth in the current recovery session, it is not at all surprising that job growth has been an issue. The resultant unemployment is due to cyclical variation therefore we could term it as cyclical unemployment - unemployment caused by business cycle recession. The current slight decrease in jobless rate of 0.1% is misleading; the growth rate could not be measure inconsiderate to other negative factors (the discouraged workers drop out). There are around 46% of jobless workers preferring to remain unemployed. This is because of the inability to find the works that satisfy their needs. The weakness in the production cycle has to be mostly blame but there are signs of an emerging disease in American called structural unemployment. Structural unemployment results from persistent mismatch between the features and skills of workers and the job demands or requirement. It last longer periods compared to the frictional unemployment, as worker would require time to learn new skills. The youth unemployment (frictional unemployment) is worse factor of the America’s weak labor market. America has a lesser fraction of prime age men in workplaces and in the labor force than any other in the G7 economy. Some 25% of men 25-54 years old with no college certifications, 35% of high school dropouts and approximately 70% of black high school dropouts are not working (Economist 2011 under Jobs for the future). In addition, this frictional unemployment arises from process of matching workers with job. Fricti onal unemployment might be good as the workers take time matching the job they are wishing to do. However, if the unemployment period is long then it is not beneficial for the economy, as short-term unemployment becomes long term. This is almost what is happening in

It's the Law ... or is it Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

It's the Law ... or is it - Essay Example There exist set rules and laws that are useful in curbing the misuse of other people’s work found in the web. The paper will briefly explore copyright laws governing internet information and the penalties for contravening them. There are numerous laws and regulations governing the use of internet information, but the paper will particularly look at copyright laws. In 1998, the then United States president Bill Clinton signed the digital millennium copyright Act (Scott). The act provides guidelines that should be adhered to by the users of the internet when accessing other people’s work that may include, music and intellectual work among others. Further, Scott documents that some of the copyright laws and regulations include: fair use, unauthorized access and copying, file sharing and liability. Let us examine liability. As stipulated in the copyright Act, one is not allowed to produce and distribute unauthorized copies from the internet. In the event that producti on is to be done, consent of the producer is supposed to be sought. Failure to do the same amounts to a breach of the law and the offender is liable for the legal consequences. When the breach occurs, the plaintiff can sue the actual offender or the internet service provider in a court of law. The complainant is also at liberty to seek an injunction from the court (Lesley). The purpose of the injunction is to prevent the offender from continual violation of the copyright rights. Lesley further documents that the copyright holder has the right to seek compensation from the offender in the court in form of monetary or statutory damages. The court of law is charged with the responsibility of establishing the guilt or innocence of the accused. If one is found guilty of violation the copyright act, he or she must take criminal responsibility.

Project Management - Organization and Communication (U5GP) Essay

Project Management - Organization and Communication (U5GP) - Essay Example This school is located in Lawton, Oklahoma; has the wolverine as a mascot; and possesses the following breakdown of students per grade: The above information is significant since the type of uniforms supplied will differ by grade. Although the overall style will remain the same throughout the grades, each grade will have its own unique identifying color in order to allow school officials to quickly differentiate among students. The first goal has already been accomplished, and that was to gather basic information regarding the amount of students to supply uniforms for and grade level of those students, as discussed herein. The second goal will be to speak with school representatives regarding the style and grade level color choices that they can make with regard to the school uniforms. The third goal will be to outline a budget for the school uniforms. Based on that budget, a list of potential suppliers can be drawn up and catalogs of uniform choices presented to school officials. Finally, school officials will be able to choose a supplier from the gathered list based upon their unique needs and the criteria outlined above. According to Mochal (2006, pg. 1), â€Å"Effective communication is a key element of successful project management.† Cornelius and Associates (2008, pg. 1) add that, â€Å"Communication not only keeps everyone up-to-date on the project progress, but also facilitates buy-in and ownership of major project decisions and milestones. To ensure the success of a project much information, including expectations, goals, needs, resources, status reports, budgets and purchase requests, needs to be communicated on a regular basis to all the major stakeholders.† For this particular project, the description in the paragraph above means that each step of the prior discussed goals will need to be communicated with school officials, as

The National Development Of The Philippines Commerce Essay

The National Development Of The Philippines Commerce Essay Necessity is the mother of invention. In the Philippines, there are many local inventions created by Filipinos that are locally and even globally used for its functionality and its usefulness. In fact, there are numerous inventions patented in the Philippines. According to the Filipino Inventors Society, there are about 3000 patent holders and intellectual property exponents nationwide. Despite this number, there is not much recognition coming from the Filipinos themselves as some of the inventions that are considered useful are not really used commercially in the Philippines. In lieu of this, the Philippine Government has provided laws on promoting and protecting local inventions. Among these laws are the Investors and Invention Incentives Act (RA 7459), Philippine Inventors Incentives Act (RA 3850) and the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines. These laws are created in the belief that there are linkages among the development of science and technology, particularly the technological advancement through inventions, with national economic development. This paper aims to prove if there is a significant implication of local inventions to national development in the context of the Philippines. As well as to analyze the current situation of the local inventions in the Philippines and the concepts to which it revolves such as the laws governing patents and intellectual property. Today local inventors and inventions alike are slowly decreasing due to several problems that they encounter while in the process of inventing. These problems to name a few are; lack of exposure from the media, lack of proper implementation of laws and policies regarding inventors and inventions, the need for more awareness and information regarding patents and the commercialization process. The numerous problems that an inventor encounters are what hinder him from potentially affecting national development and highlighting the innate talents of a Filipino from both the local and foreign market. According to Carmen Peralta, Director of the IPO Information, Documentation and Technology Transfer Bureau, if only given the needed exposure, inventors would be inspired to work harder that would eventually translate to more patents. The short number of patent applications and the much needed lack of support from the media in terms of recognition and endorsement is a reason for immediate action on both the government and the media. The lack of public exposure is what keeps local inventors away from possibly inducing technological change in national development. B. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This study will answer the main problem: How can local inventions induce technological change for National Development? In answering the main problem several sub-problems or sub-questions needs to be accounted first. a) What are the current issues regarding local inventions? b) How does the government support local inventions? c) What model is necessary to analyze local inventions, technological change, and national development? C. HYPOTHESIS Local Invention: Ho: Government support does not contribute to the development of local invention H1: Government support contributes to the development of local invention National Development: Ho: Local Inventions has no significant implication to National Development H1: Local Inventions has a significant implication to National Development. D. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In this paper we used one of the first frameworks in comprehending science and technology which is the Linear model of innovation (Godin, 2006) in compliance with Vernon W. Ruttans study entitled; Usher and Shumpeter on Invention, Innovation and Technological change*1959. In line with the study of Ruttan, he assumed that most of the social scientist follows a certain sequence in which invention, innovation and technological change are ordered in a logical sequence (Ruttan, 1959). InventionÆ’Â   InnovationÆ’Â   Technological Change After generalizing the proper sequence assumed by most social scientist in the past, he then solved the terminological problem between invention, innovation and technological change by synthesizing two prominent studies in linear model of innovation by Usher and Shumpeter. V. W Ruttan insinuated a fusion of A. P. Ushers steps in the invention process (Usher 1954) and Schumpeters concept of innovation (Godin, 2006). Shumpeter distinguishes invention from innovation. Innovation is possible without anything we should identify as invention, and invention does not necessarily induce innovation, but produces of itself no economically relevant effect at all.6 According to Ruttan, Schumpeters definition of innovation is in terms of a change in the form of the production function (Ruttan, 1959). We will now define innovation more rigorously by means of the production function. This function describes the way in which quantity of products varies if quantity of factors vary. If, instead of quantities of factors we vary the form of the function, we have an innovation.7 Ruttan eliminated the distinction between invention and innovation as he discusses Ushers steps in invention process but incorporated the idea of defining innovation by means of production function. This is where the synthesis came about (Ruttan, 1959). The definition of invention by Usher is in terms of new things that require an act of insight going beyond the normal exercise of technical or professional skill (Ruttan, 1959). Inventive acts of insight are unlearned activities that result in new organizations of prior knowledge and experience.6 Such acts of insight frequently emerge in the course of performing acts of skill, though characteristically the act of insight is induced by the conscious perception of an unsatisfactory gap in knowledge or mode of action.7 In the Chapter IV of the revised edition of A History of Mechanical Innovations, Usher was said to discourse on the occurrence of ones inventions in contrast with the performance of acts of skill by the use of cumulative synthesis (Ruttan, 1959). With this discussion, Ruttan concluded that it is more applicable to give the definition of invention as a subsection of innovation and shifting Ushers description of invention to innovation-Indeed, it would be more in line with both popular usage and the terminology of other disciplines to use the term innovation to designate any new thing in the area of science, technology, or art (Ruttan, 1959). The definition of technological change used by students of productivity and technological change is said to have a close similarity with the definition of innovation provided by Shumpeter. Compare, for example, a recent definition by Solow with the above quotation from Schumpeter. (Ruttan, 1959). If Q represents output and K and L represent capital and labor in physical units, then the aggregate production function can be written as: Q = F(K, L; t) the variable t . . . appears in F to allow for technical change. I am using the phrase technical change as a shorthand expression for any kind of a shift in the production function.9 According to Ruttan, the only problem with this definition of technological change is that it does not emphasize the specific process of technological change. Thus a need for a proper analytical definition is a must. After providing a clear distinction between invention, innovation and technological change, Ruttan gave three prominent suggestions in this study namely; first one must not attempt to provide an analytical definition of invention and depict it as a subset of technical innovation which is patentable. Second, the extension of the definition of innovation is needed so much as to cover the entire range of processes by which new things emerge in science, technology, and art. Third, The use of technological change in the functional sense- to designate changes in the coefficients of a function relating inputs to outputs resulting from the practical application of innovations in technology and in economic organization (Ruttan, 1959). In compliance to the study of Ruttan, the linear model of innovation will be use as suggested in Ruttans study. The linear model of innovation starts with basic research, then adds applied research and development, and ends with production and diffusion (Ruttan, 1959): Basic research Æ’Â   Applied research Development Æ’Â   (Production and) Diffusion In function: Innovation = Basic research+Applied research development+Diffusion It has been noted that the source of this linear model has remain indefinable because it has never been documented. Despite its widespread use, there are still many criticisms that surround the theory and even proclaiming it as a dead model. The long survival of the model despite regular criticisms is because of statistics (Godin, 2006). Overall, we will be using the definitions and suggestions provided by Ruttan. We will not provide an analysis on invention. We will use the linear model of innovation for the analysis of innovation as suggested by Ruttan-extend the concept of innovation to cover the entire range of process by which new things emerge. We will use the provided definition of the technological change, by Solow, in Ruttans study in order to analyze invention to national economy. The linear model of innovation in compliance to V.W. Ruttan study of 1958 is a proper framework for this paper. This paper analytically analyzed innovation and technical change of the Philippine local invention as suggested by Ruttan. Also, the simpleness of the linear model can be a proper starting point in analyzing insufficient data availability such as the condition of the Philippine local invention. E. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK In this paper we attempt to analyze innovation, as defined in Ruttans 1959 study, and technological change of Philippine local invention in the year 1900-2010. In analyzing innovation we will use the linear model of innovation particularly the one that was defined by Ruttan in his 1959 study. Linear model of innovation X = f(B,A,D) X: Innovation B: Basic research A: Applied research D: Diffusion Empirical framework X= f(D,E,F,G) X: #of local invention D: # of scientist and engineer E: Annual RD expenditures/ government allocated funds F: # of clients/beneficiaries G: # of commercialized local invention In analyzing technological change we will use Solows function for technological change. Solows Technological change function Q = F(K, L; t) Q: Aggregate output K: Capital L: Labor t: Technical change Empirical Framework Q=F(K,L,I; t) Q: GDP K: Invesments L: Labor force I: Local invention t: Technical Change F. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Invention and innovation have proven to be crucial components for the development of modern societies (Marton-Lefà ¨vre, 2003). This study is important therefore in order to analyze the current status of the local inventions in the Philippines and its linkage to national development. Since it has always been based on the presence of necessity that inventions are created, there is always a need and a demand for inventions especially for the less developed countries that are in the process of industrialization. However, this demand for local invention is not quite evident in the Philippine market. This study therefore aims to analyze the current problems that local inventions face and analyze the effectiveness of the innovation system that we have in the Philippines. According to Johnson et al, the history and development of the innovation system concept indicates that it can be useful for analyzing less developed economies (Johnson, Edquist, Lundvall, 2003). This paper therefore, is significant in order for us to become aware of the current situation of the local inventions, its history and development in the Philippines in order to create solutions to its problems. This study is important also for us to know the impact of local inventions to our economy and be able to provide basis on the applicability of the concept that inventions, being the source of technological change, can lead to national development. F. SCOPE AND LIMITATION The study is limited to the local inventions that were given residential patent grants. This is to make sure that the local invention passed the criteria of IPPHIL and WIPO. This means that the local invention complies with the standard definition of invention by these two patent offices. The scope of the study in terms of commercialization process only includes local inventions that were licensed, venture and assigned. These three are the basic ways to commercialize an invention. The analysis of current issues in local inventions will be limited to the data provided by the annual report of TAPI-Technology application and promoting institute, the official government institute that helps local invention to be commercialized. The timeframe of the study is from 2000-2010. This is due to the lack of availability of some datas regarding local inventions. The area of the study is in the Philippine setting. Local inventions created by a Filipino with patent grant. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE I. CURRENT SITUATION OF LOCAL INVENTION Local inventions comprised only 1.2% of over 8,000 patents granted by the IPO (Intellectual Property Office) of the Philippines over the last six years, indicating the lack of awareness on the value of IP rights (Flores, 2007) Currently there is a lack of patent applications as stated by the IPO by Filipino inventors who wish to patent their inventions, because of lack of awareness on the value of such patent rights, inventors tend to not apply at all. The lack of knowledge of Filipino inventors on such patent rights and exclusive incentives are one of the reasons of the small percentage of patent applications. The number one reason is the level of awareness on the availability of support services being provided by the IPO (Gefty, 2011) In order to solve the current problems of the Philippine local inventors, there have been laws existing to support and encourage the local inventions. One of which is the Republic Act 7459, or the Investors and Invention Incentives Act of the Philippines whose aim is to give priority to invention and its utilization on the countrys productive systems and national life; and to this end provide incentives to investors and protect their exclusive right to their invention, particularly when the invention is beneficial to the people and contributes to national development and progress. Some of its provisions are to give cash rewards amounting up to Php100,000.00 to the chosen outstanding inventors They also give tax incentives and exemptions as well as invention development assistance funds through the Technology Application and Promotion Institute in the amount of at least twelve percent (12%) of the annual operations fund of the Institute from donations, bequests, and other sources, public, private or domestic or foreign, for assisting potential or actual inventors in the initial experiments and prototype development and other invento r-development related activities of invention or innovation. Included in Article 5 of RA 7459 is the Invention Guarantee Fund created by RA no. 3850. A continuing annual appropriation in the amount of not less than Ten Million Pesos (P10, 000,000.00) shall also be provided for this purpose in the annual budget of the Department of Science and Technology. The Fund shall also be used for special financing programs for Filipino inventions pursuant under this Act. This also includes Financial and Loan Assistance from Government Banks of not more than Two-hundred Thousand Pesos (P200, 000.00). These are Loan assistance for the commercial production of an invention, either locally or for export and duly certified by the Filipino Inventors Society and the Screening Committee created under Section 4, shall be extended by government banks: Provided, That said invention meets the criteria that would enhance the economy of the country such as profitability and viability, dollar-earning capacity, and generation of employment opportunities for Filipinos: P rovided, further, That said loan shall be guaranteed by the IGF. II. THE PROCESS OF INVENTION It has been noted that we know in our hearts what an invention is and the idea of invention is said to have assumed a status like that of consciousness or mind, something we can express of but not quite articulate (Arthur, 2005). WIPO provided a definition of invention such as; a new product or process that solves a technical problem. Invention is an example of an intellectual property. Under the intellectual property, there are two categories namely; industrial property and copyright. Invention is categorized under industrial property. An invention must be patented in order to protect ones intellectual property rights. An invention must, in general, fulfil the following conditions to be protected by a patent. Before it can be patented, one invention must abide by the requirements of WIPO such as; It must be of practical use; it must show an element of novelty, meaning some new characteristic that is not part of the body of existing knowledge in its particular technical field and mus t show an inventive step that could not be deduced by a person with average knowledge of the technical field (WIPO, 2000). It has been emphasize that the single most important element of long term growth is the innovative activity (Rosenberg, 2004). This Innovative activity can be in terms of organization or production. Focusing on production, most of us will think about technological progress created by inventions. A handful of readings will indicate how important inventions are to our economy; in most of the developed country have economic indicators relating to technological progress. So much have been said about how important inventions are but only some will tell about how it came about. In the study conducted by Ruttan, he cited a study of Usher; recognizing and agreeing with the statements. In Ushers Chapter IV of the revised edition of A History of Mechanical Innovations, he identifies three general approaches on how invention came about; the transcendentalist, mechanistic process and the cumulative synthesis (Ruttan, 1959). According to Usher the transcendentalists ascribe the occurrence of invention to the occasional inspiration of a genius who from time to time realizes a direct knowledge of indispensable truth through the exercise of intuition. While the Mechanistic process represents a new combination of individual elements that accumulated over time. This process came about due to necessity and that the inventor is just an instrument of the processes. Among the three approaches on how invention came about, Usher believed and agreed with the cumulative synthesis-major inventions materialize through cumulative synthesis of simple inventions, each of which enta ils an individual act of insight. In case of individual invention, four steps were outlined: perception of the problem, setting the stage (the gathering of elements and data needed for the construction of the possible solution), the act of insight (the establishment of the solution to the problem) and critical revision (can be comprehended and working) (Ruttan, 1959). According to Usher, these three approaches are the possible logic behind how inventions are made, but at the same time criticizing the first two approaches and agreeing with the cumulative synthesis. The other way of looking on how invention came about is through a sociological and economical perspective. One author noted that novel technologies are influenced by social needs; they arise from experiences outside the standard domain; they often originated in cultures that reinforce risk; they retort to economic incentives (such as demand or factor price changes); they merge with the accumulation of scientific knowledge; they start better with the interchange of information which is often mediated by networks of colleagues (Arthur, 2005). Overall, the process of invention is compound, lengthy, determined, knowledge generating, boundary-transgressing, and notable for a number of other features (THE LEMELSON-MIT PROGRAM, 2004). Besides looking in the invention process per se, invention will not be around if not because of its creator, the inventor. There are a number of abilities and disposition that can be attributed to the production of invention such as; resourcefulness, resilience, a commitment to practical action, nonconformity, passion for the work, unquenchable optimism and many more. Skills and ability examples: mental flexibility, alertness to practical problems and opportunities, ability to match ones talents with the problem, using a tool kit of effective ways to conceptualize and break down the problems, and self-knowledge helpful in managing ones endeavours and etc (THE LEMELSON-MIT PROGRAM, 2004). After knowing the process of invention and sample skills of inventors, we must recognize the importance of RD in the invention process. As of today most of invention does not come from an individual but by groups such as research institute financed by the government or private firms. These institutes are normally called research and development (RD) institutes. According to OECD definition, Research and development is a term used in covering three activities: basic research, applied research, and experimental development. It has been said that the common role of RD is to encourage innovation and technology by improving the ability of firms to learn about advances in the leading edge (absorptive capacity) (Griffith, 2001). III. THE PROCESS OF COMMERCIALIZATION It is a given fact that the main goal of invention is to solve a problem by technical process with this the beneficiaries of the invention will be satisfied. But how about the inventor, aside from the sense of achievement and acknowledgement what can he benefit from his invention? Here lies the emphasis on the commercialization process of invention. There are different ways to commercialize ones invention; either through licensing, self-venture or assignment. It has been noted that In order to reach the market, you have to find someone who can sell your invention or sell it yourself (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). According to WIPO, Licensing occurs when a licensor grants exploitation rights over a patent to a licensee. A license is also a legal contract, and so it sets the terms and condition of the exchange of rights including other important details in using or producing ones invention (Mendes, 2000). Many inventors undertake licensing because of the huge amount of money that they can acquire and the level of responsibility is lower than using or selling your own invention (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). There are considerable pros and cons regarding the licensing process. Heres the summary: the pros; licensing multiplies the resources to develop your invention, you may make some money and you may make it soon, and licensing frees you to do something else. The cons; you lose control of the technology; your own involvement is reduced, finding the right licensee is tough and protecting your interests is crucial (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). It has been noted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in United States that venturing or commercializing your technology by yourself is probably the hardest path to take especially if one does not have a background about business and marketing. It requires a lot of business skills and connections in order to successfully commercialized ones invention. There are also pros and cons with the use of this process. The pros; running a company can be exciting, in the long run, you may make a lot more money and it is your company and you control it. The cons; its risky, resources remain limited, youll be working and working and you probably wont make much money for quite a while (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). In an assignment involves there is a trade and transmission of ownership of the patent by the assignor to the assignee (Mendes, 2000). It is probably the easiest way to commercialize an invention but in return the ownership of the patent does not belong to you and it is irrevocable. If you want a lump sum of money in an instant from your invention, this is probably the appropriate commercial process for you to use. Before an invention undergoes the process of commercialization, there are general prerequisites that are needed to be accomplished. First, it must be working, specifically an engineering prototype. Second, you should have a market analysis-you ask the basic questions in economics such as who, how, when, where and how much to produce. In addition, you need to know different market channels where your invention could reach. Last, a written plan-same as writing a business plan (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). There are two things that should be prioritized in order to lessen ones problem in the process of commercialization. An inventor must acknowledge the cost and sources of capital. Cost can be in the forms of money, time and personal life, while sources of capital can in forms of debt capital, government funds and equity capital (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1999). Overall, it seems that the commercialization of ones invention is one of the goals of an inventor. It is one of the preferred end points of such activity. A report emphasized the importance of commercialization of an invention and proclaimed it as a reward to the inventor. It also included the importance of relationship with different professions in order to make ones invention into the market-What good is an invention if it never makes it to market, or for that matter, I it never rewards its creator? Invention does not end with coming up with a new device or new process. It takes an equally adroit tenacity to form the relationships that will make the invention payoff (McPherson, 1995). Certain relationship must be established by the inventor with different business development professional in order to try making its invention into the market; maybe a patent attorney, market researcher, business development pro or perhaps an invention-marketing group (McPherson, 1995). IV. Government Support in Local Invention There are many government agencies as well as non-government organizations that support local inventions. Under the supervision of the Department of Science and Technology, is the establishment of the Technology Application Promotion Institute or TAPI. Its primary responsibility is to promote the commercialization of technologies and market the services of other operating units of the department (TAPI, 2008). Among others, TAPI also administers the Invention Development Assistance Fund for the initial experiments and prototype development and other invention-development related activities. Through this fund, TAPI has managed to conduct various programs that raise the level of awareness of various clients in the areas of technology application and utilization. Among these programs is the Academe/Industry Prototype Development Assistance Program which provides financial support for the fabrication and testing of commercial prototypes, the DOST Exposition and Fairs Program that promotes and exhibits technology materials, ideas and information, the Technology-Based Enterprise Development Assistance Program which gives financial assistance to technology-based micro, small and medium scale enterprises, the Investors Forum Program which brings together technology operators and investors to create actual business ventures, and many other programs that promotes and supports Philippine local inventions (TAPI, 2008). All these programs lie under the Technology Information and Promotion Division. Among various programs of the TAPI caters to agricultural enterprises, manufacturing firms, students and non-government organizations through its Investment and Business Operations Division. TAPI also extends its assistance to agricultural-based enterprises through the Consultancy for Agricultural Productivity Enhancement (CAPE). It also assists small and medium scale enterprises in manufacturing to attain higher productivity through the Manufacturing Productivity Extension (MPEX) Program and the Venture Financing Program. TAPI also caters to students, young professional in developing their entrepreneurial competencies through the Small Enterprise Technology Upgrading Program DOST-Academe Technology-Based Enterprise Development (SETUP-DATBED) Program. DOST also supports technology transfer through the Science and Technology volunteer Pool Program (STEVPP). This program basically provides experts and scientists to its interested clients in the various regions and municipalities in th e Philippines in order to provide them technical assistance on technology commercialization (TAPI, 2008) Lastly is the Invention Development Division (IDD) who is mainly responsible for providing financial assistance to Filipino inventors by upholding the intellectual property system as well as the business development of inventions and technologies (TAPI, 2008). They basically provide funding assistance for the local inventors in their activities such as securing intellectual property protection, industrial applications in private enterprises, manufacturing and testing of their inventions, developing their invention as an enterprise commodity and even travel assistance. They are also given tax and duty exemptions through an endorsement to the Bureau of Internal Revenue and the Department of Finance. Inventors are also encouraged to showcase their inventions through the National Invention Contest and Exhibits (NICE) wherein they can have cash incentives or prizes amounting to P150,000.00 as well as WIPO Gold Medals and certificates. This contest is held annually and is open for all local inventors in the academe (high school and college level) as well as those in the private sectors. Among the other agencies concerned in the promotion of local invention and the protection of intellectual property rights are the Filipino Inventors Society and the Intellectual Property Rights Office of the Philippines. V. Cultivating Technological Innovation for Development Development or innovation in society of technologies, such as information and communication technologies should be self-cultivated rather than imported. (Corea, 2000) Based from the research paper there is a need for developing countries to improve or focus on achieving a technological adoption particularly on Information Communication Technologies to reap its benefits. There have been multiple research disciplines to support such study particularly; behavioral notion on development, concepts of change, theoretical formulations. The paper applies these ideas for understanding the macro-phenomena of national development in terms of technological innovation Technological change as defined in the paper is any incremental or radical changes in the application of problem-solving knowledge to the production process, resulting in increased efficiency, either in the form of a product or service produced with lower costs or in the form of a qualitative improvement in a product or service.